Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity

Ghazaleh Mirzaei; Akbar Mirzaei; Shahrzad Javanshir

doi:10.1007/s10118-025-3473-9

Your Location：

Home >

Browse articles >

Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity

RESEARCH ARTICLE | Updated：2026-01-13

- Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity
- Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity
- Chinese Journal of Polymer Science 2026年44卷第1期页码：198-208
- Affiliations：
  
  Pharmaceutical and Heterocyclic Compounds Research Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran 16846-13114, Iran
- Author bio：
  
  shjavan@iust.ac.ir
- Funds：
  
  Electronic supplementary information (ESI) is available free of charge in the online version of this article at http://doi.org/10.1007/s10118-025-3473-9.
- DOI：10.1007/s10118-025-3473-9
  中图分类号：
- 收稿：2025-08-22，
  
  修回：2025-10-03，
  
  录用：2025-10-08，
  
  网络首发：2025-12-25，
  
  纸质出版：2026-01-15
- Accepted：
Scan QR Code
Mirzaei, G.; Mirzaei, A.; Javanshir, S. Flexible mussel-inspired hydrogel with polyaniline and polypyrrole for transparent wearable strain sensors: investigation of physical properties, self-healing, and electrical conductivity. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2026, 44, 198–208

Ghazaleh Mirzaei, Akbar Mirzaei, Shahrzad Javanshir. Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity[J]. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science, 2026, 44(1): 198-208.
Mirzaei, G.; Mirzaei, A.; Javanshir, S. Flexible mussel-inspired hydrogel with polyaniline and polypyrrole for transparent wearable strain sensors: investigation of physical properties, self-healing, and electrical conductivity. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2026, 44, 198–208 DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3473-9.

Ghazaleh Mirzaei, Akbar Mirzaei, Shahrzad Javanshir. Flexible Mussel-inspired Hydrogel with Polyaniline and Polypyrrole for Transparent Wearable Strain Sensors: Investigation of Physical Properties, Self-healing, and Electrical Conductivity[J]. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science, 2026, 44(1): 198-208. DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3473-9.

摘要

A mussel-inspired hydrogel incorporating polydopamine (PDA)

polypyrrole (Ppy)

polyaniline (PANi) and poly(vinylalcohol) (PVA) within a polyacrylamide (PAM) network delivers high transparency (about 90%)

electrical conductivity (about 95.4×10

S/cm)

tensile strength (about 32.6 kPa)

and rapid self-healing (about 48% recovery in 1 h at 50 °C). It functions effectively as a flexible

wearable strain sensor with GF of approximately 7.44.

Abstract

Conducting hydrogels have garnered significant interest in the field of wearable electronics. However

simultaneously achieving high transparency

high conductivity

strong adhesion

and self-healing ability within a short time remains a major challenge. In this study

a multifunctional mussel-inspired hydrogel was synthesized in only 5 min

with polydopamine (PDA)-polypyrrole (Ppy)-polyaniline (PANi) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanoparticles incorporated into the polyacrylamide (PAM) network. The resulting hydrogel exhibited high transparency (about 90% light transmission in the range of 400–800 nm)

high conductivity ((95.4±0.4)×10

–4

S/cm)

tensile strength (32.60±1.03 kPa)

strain at break (904.46%±11.50%)

and adhesive strength (30–60 kPa). It also demonstrated rapid self-healing properties (about 48% strength recovery within 1 h at 50 °C) and water-dependent shape memory behavior. As a wearable strain sensor

the hydrogel successfully detected finger flexion

wrist movements

facial expression changes

and breathing with high sensitivity and stability. The calculated gauge factor (GF) was 7.44±0.31

which is higher than that of many previously reported hydrogels. Compared with previous oyster-inspired or Ppy-based hydrogels

our system showed a much shorter synthesis time

higher transparency

and enhanced multifunctionality. These findings highlight the potential of the proposed hydrogel for next-generation flexible electronics

e-skin

and biomedical monitoring devices.

关键词

Keywords

references

Barhoum, A.; Hamimed, S.; Slimi, H.; Othmani, A.; Abdel-Haleem, F. M.; Bechelany, M. Modern designs of electrochemical sensor platforms for environmental analyses: Principles, nanofabrication opportunities, and challenges. Trends Environ. Anal. Chem. 2023 , 38 , e00199..

Guan, Y.; Bai, M.; Li, Q.; Li, W.; Liu, G.; Liu, C.; Chen, Y.; Lin, Y.; Hui, Y.; Wei, R. A plantar wearable pressure sensor based on hybrid lead zirconate-titanate/microfibrillated cellulose piezoelectric composite films for human health monitoring. Lab Chip 2022 , 22 , 2376−2391..

Liang, Y.; Xu, H.; Li, Z.; Zhangji, A.; Guo, B. Bioinspired injectable self-healing hydrogel sealant with fault-tolerant and repeated thermo-responsive adhesion for sutureless post-wound-closure and wound healing. Nano-Micro Lett. 2022 , 14 , 185..

Wang, X.; Wei, W.; Guo, Z.; Liu, X.; Liu, J.; Bing, T.; Yu, Y.; Yang, X.; Cai, Q. Organic–inorganic composite hydrogels: compositions, properties, and applications in regenerative medicine. Biomater. Sci. 2024 , 12 , 1079−1114..

Wang, G.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, Q.; Zhou, L.; Gao, G. Bio-based hydrogel transducer for measuring human motion with stable adhesion and ultrahigh toughness. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021 , 13 , 24173−24182..

Bercea, M. Bioinspired hydrogels as platforms for life-science applications: challenges and opportunities. Polymers 2022 , 14 , 2365..

Liang, X.; Zhong, H. J.; Ding, H.; Yu, B.; Ma, X.; Liu, X.; Chong, C.-M.; He, J. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based hydrogels: recent progress in fabrication, properties, and multifunctional applications. Polymers 2024 , 16 , 275 5..

[Khan, M. U. A.; Aslam, M. A.; Abdullah, M. F. B.; Al-Arjan, W. S.; Stojanovic, G. M.; Hasan, A. Hydrogels: classifications, fundamental properties, applications, and scopes in recent advances in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine – a comprehensive review. Arab. J. Chem . 2024 , 17 , 105968..

Sun, S.; Chen, J. Recent advances in hydrogel-based biosensors for cancer detection. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2024 , 16 , 46988−47002..

Milojević, M.; Harih, G.; Vihar, B.; Vajda, J.; Gradišnik, L.; Zidarič, T.; Stana Kleinschek, K.; Maver, U.; Maver, T. Hybrid 3D printing of advanced hydrogel-based wound dressings with tailorable properties. Pharmaceutics 2021 , 13 , 564..

Liao, M.; Wan, P.; Wen, J.; Gong, M.; Wu, X.; Wang, Y.; Shi, R.; Zhang, L. Wearable, healable, and adhesive epidermal sensors assembled from mussel-inspired conductive hybrid hydrogel framework. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2017 , 27 , 1703852..

Zhang, Q.; Liu, X.; Duan, L.; Gao, G. Ultra-stretchable wearable strai n sensors based on skin-inspired adhesive, tough and conductive hydrogels. Chem. Eng. J. 2019 , 365 , 10−19..

Sparks, B. J.; Hoff, E. F.; Hayes, L. P.; Patton, D. L. Mussel-inspired thiol–ene polymer networks: Influencing network properties and adhesion with catechol functionality. Chem. Mater. 2012 , 24 , 3633−3642..

Wei, W.; Petrone, L.; Tan, Y.; Cai, H.; Israelachvili, J. N.; Miserez, A.; Waite, J. H. Anunderwater surface-drying peptide inspired by a mussel adhesive protein. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2016 , 26 , 3496−3507..

Lee, B. P.; Messersmith, P. B.; Israelachvili, J. N.; Waite, J. H. Mussel-inspired adhesives and coatings. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2011 , 41 , 99−132..

[Mirzaei, G.; Mirzaei, A.; Javanshir, S. A multifunctional self-healing underwater adhesive and injectable conductive composite hydrogel designed for flexible strain sensors. Emergent Mater . 2025 , 1−15..

Lee, H.; Lee, B. P.; Messersmith, P. B. A reversible wet/dry adhesive inspired b y mussels and geckos. Nature 2007 , 448 , 338−341..

Huang, Y.; Zhu, T.; Zhu, Z.; Yuan, H.; Tan, L.; Yao, P.; Qiao, Y.; Zhu, C.; Xu, J. Mussel-Inspired Adhesive and Carbon Fiber Conductive Hydrogel for Flexible Sensors. ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2023 , 5 , 5707−5715..

Kord Forooshani, P.; Lee, B. P. Recent approaches in designing bioadhesive materials inspired by mussel adhesive protein. J. Polym. Sci. A: Polym. Chem. 2017 , 55 , 9−33..

Huang, X.; Chen, Y.; Li, J.; Li, J.; Gao, Q.; Zhan, X. Improving the coating and prepressing properties of soybean meal adhesive by constructing a biomimetic topological structure. Mater. Des. 2022 , 223 , 111163..

Zhang, W.; Wen, J.; Yang, J.; Li, M.; Peng, F.; Ma, M.; Bian, J. Multifunctional hybrid hydrogel with transparency, conductivity, and self-adhesion for soft sensors using hemicellulose-decorated polypyrrole as a conductive matrix. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2022 , 223 , 1−10..

Yuk, H.; Lu, B.; Zhao, X. Hydrogel bioelectronics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2019 , 48 , 1642−1667..

Li, J.; Yu, J.; Huang, Y.; Zhao, H.; Tian, L. Highly stable and multiemissive silver nanoclusters synthesized in situ in a DNA hydrogel and their application for hydroxyl radical sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2018 , 10 , 26075−26083..

Deng, Z.; Guo, Y.; Zhao, X.; Ma, P. X.; Guo, B. Multifunctional stimuli-responsive hydrogels with self-healing, high conductivity, and rapid recovery through host–guest interactions. Chem. Mater. 2018 , 30 , 1729−1742..

Shay, T.; Velev, O. D.; Dickey, M. D. Soft electrodes combining hydrogel and liquid metal. Soft Matter 2018 , 14 , 3296−3303..

Lee, J. H.; Lee, A. S.; Lee, J. C.; Hong, S. M.; Hwang, S. S.; Koo, C. M. Hybrid ionogel electrolytes for high temperature lithium batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015 , 3 , 2226−2233..

Zhang, R.; Chen, Y.; Montazami, R. Ionic liquid-doped gel polymer electrolyte for flexible lithium-ion polymer batteries. Materials 2015 , 8 , 2735−2748. .

Wang, Y.; Zhu, C.; Pfattner, R.; Yan, H.; Jin, L.; Chen, S.; Molina-Lopez, F.; Lissel, F.; Liu, J.; Rabiah, N. I. A highly stretchable, transparent, and conductive polymer. Sci. Adv. 2017 , 3 , e1602076..

Zhou, L.; Fan, L.; Yi, X.; Zhou, Z.; Liu, C.; Fu, R.; Dai, C.; Wang, Z.; Chen, X.; Yu, P.; Chen, D.; Tan, G.; Wang, Q.; Ning, C. Soft conducting polymer hydrogels cross-linked and doped by tannic acid for spinal cord injury repair. ACS Nano 2018 , 12 , 10957−10967..

[Cai, D.; Zhong, X.; Xu, L.; Xiong, Y.; Deng, W.; Zou, G.; Hou, H.; Ji, X. Biomass-derived carbon dots: synthesis, modification and application in batteries. Chem. Sci . 2025 , 16 , 4937−4970..

Zhang, W.; Pan, Z.; Yang, F. K.; Zhao, B. A facile in situ approach to polypyrrole functionalization through bioinspired catechols. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2015 , 25 , 1588−1597..

Han, L.; Yan, L.; Wang, M.; Wang, K.; Fang, L.; Zhou, J.; Fang, J.; Ren, F.; Lu, X. Transparent, adhesive, and conductive hydrogel for soft bioelec tronics based on light-transmitting polydopamine-doped polypyrrole nanofibrils. Chem. Mater. 2018 , 30 , 5561−5572..

Jia, Z.; Zeng, Y.; Tang, P.; Gan, D.; Xing, W.; Hou, Y.; Wang, K.; Xie, C.; Lu, X. Conductive, tough, transparent, and self-healing hydrogels based on catechol–metal ion dual self-catalysis. Chem. Mater. 2019 , 31 , 5625−5632..

Yuan, W.; Gan, D.; Wang, S.; Wang, Q.; Wang, W.; Sun, C.; Dong, X. Rapid synthesis of resilient, conductive, and transparent hydrogels with Mo 2 C-derived polyoxometalates. Chem. Eng. J. 2022 , 448 , 137675..

Roy, A.; Zenker, S.; Jain, S.; Afshari, R.; Oz, Y.; Zheng, Y.; Annabi, N. A highly stretchable, conductive, and transparent bioadhesive hydrogel as a flexible sensor for enhanced real-time human health monitoring. Adv. Mater. 2024 , 36 , e2404225..

[Wang, F.; Liang, F.; Chen, Q.; Huang, J.; Wang, X.; Cheng, W.; Cui, J.; Xu, F.; Mei, Y.; Wu, X. MXene-enhanced hydrogel cardiac patch with high electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and excellent biocompatibility. Mater. Today Electron . 2025 , 13 , 100163..

Ahmed, F.; Song, J.; Masud; Lee, S.; Kim, J. Advances in the development of hydrogel-based adhesion layers for wearable health monitors: focusing on biocompatibility, conductivity, and mechanical strength. ACS Appl. Polym. Mater. 2024 , 6 , 13497−13511..

[Chen, Y.; Lu, K.; Song, Y.; Han, J.; Yue, Y.; Biswas, S.K.; Wu, Q.; Xiao, H. A skin-inspired stretchable, self-healing and electro-conductive hydrogel with a synergistic triple network for wearable strain sensors applied in human-motion detection. Nanomaterials 2019 , 9 , 1737.

Yamada, T.; Hayamizu, Y.; Yamamoto, Y.; Yomogida, Y.; Izadi-Najafabadi, A.; Futaba, D. N.; Hata, K. A stretchable carbon nanotube strain sensor for human-motion detection. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011 , 6 , 296−301..

Neffe, A.T.; Löwenberg, C.; Julich-Gruner, K.K.; Behl, M.; Lendlein, A. Thermally-induced shape-memory behavior of degradable gelatin-based networks. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021 , 22 , 5892..

Li, Q.; Liu, H.; Zhang, S.; Zha ng, D.; Liu, X.; He, Y.; Mi, L.; Zhang, J.; Liu, C.; Shen, C. Superhydrophobic electrically conductive paper for ultrasensitive strain sensor with excellent anticorrosion and self-cleaning property. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2019 , 11 , 21904−21914..

Chen, Z.; Chen, Y.; Hedenqvist, M. S.; Chen, C.; Cai, C.; Li, H.; Liu, H.; Fu, J. Multifunctional conductive hydrogels and their applications as smart wearable devices. J. Mater. Chem. B 2021 , 9 , 2561−2583..

Zhang, W.; Yang, F. K.; Pan, Z.; Zhang, J.; Zhao, B. Bio-Inspired dopamine functionalization of polypyrrole for improved adhesion and conductivity. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2014 , 35 , 350−354..

Tran, H. D.; Shin, K.; Hong, W. G.; D'Arcy, J. M.; Kojima, R. W.; Weiller, B. H.; Kaner, R. B. A template-free route to polypyrrole nanofibers. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2007 , 28 , 2289−2293..

Bai, Y.; Chen, X. A fast water-induced shape memory polymer based on hydroxyethyl cellulose/graphene oxide composites. Compos. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2017 , 103 , 9−16..

Han, L.; Yan, L.; Wang, K.; Fang, L.; Zhang, H.; Tang, Y.; Ding, Y.; Weng, L.-T.; Xu, J.; Weng, J. Tough, self-healable and tissue-adhesive hydrogel with tunable multifunctionality. NPG Asia Mater. 2017 , 9 , e372..

Zhou, H. R.; Huang, J.; Chen, M.; Li, Y.; Yuan, M.; Yang, H. Effect of metal ions with reducing properties on hydrogels containing catechol groups. Colloids Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2021 , 631 , 127657..

Chen, H.; Hao, B.; Ge, P.; Chen, S. Highly stretchable, self-healing, and 3D printing prefabricatable hydrophobic association hydrogels with the assistance of electrostatic interaction. Polym. Chem. 2020 , 11 , 4741−4748..

Zhang, J.; Wang, Y.; Wei, Q.; Wang, Y.; Lei, M.; Li, M.; Li, D.; Zhang, L.; Wu, Y. Self-healing mechanism and conductivity of the hydrogel flexible sensors: A review. Gels 2021 , 7 , 216..

Stejskal, J.; Gilbert, R. Polyaniline. Preparation of a conducting polymer (IUPAC technical report). Pure Appl. Chem. 2002 , 74 , 857−867..

Kato, H.; Nishikawa, O.; Matsui, T.; Honma, S.; Kokado, H. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study of dopants of polypyrrole. J. Phys. Chem. 1991 , 95 , 6011−6014..

Taşdelen, B. Preparation and characterization of conducting hydrogels composite made of polyaniline, polyacrylamide and kaolin. Mater. Today Proc. 2018 , 5 , 15983−15989..

Lee, H.; Dellatore, S. M.; Miller, W. M.; Messersmith, P. B. Mussel-inspired surface chemistry for multifunctional coatings. Science 2007 , 318 , 426−430..

Salomäki, M.; Ouvinen, T.; Marttila, L.; Kivelä, H.; Leiro, J.; Mäkilä, E.; Lukkari, J. Polydopamine Nanoparticles Prepared Using Redox-Active Transition Metals. J. Phys. Chem. B 2019 , 123 , 2513−2524..

[MA, C.; SG, P.; PR, G.; RN, M.; Shashwati, S.; VB, P. Synthesis and characterization of polypyrrole (PPy) thin films. Soft Nanoscience Lett . 2011 , 2011 , (article)..

Seema, S. R.; Arora, S.; Lata, S.; Yadav, A. To study the structural characterization of the polyaniline/CoFe2O4 nanocomposites. Int. J. Appl. Phys. 2022 , 9 , 1−6..

Chew, A. R.; Ghosh, R.; Shang, Z.; Spano, F. C.; Salleo, A. Sequential doping reveals the importance of amorphous chain rigidity in charge transport of semi-crystalline polymers. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2017 , 8 , 4974−4980..

Chai, C.; Guo, Y.; Huang, Z.; Zhang, Z.; Yang, S.; Li, W.; Zhao, Y.; Hao, J. Antiswelling and durable adhesion biodegradable hydrogels for tissue repairs and strain sensors. Langmuir 2020 , 36 , 10448−10459..

Devi, A. V. K.; Shyam, R.; Palaniappan, A.; Jaiswal, A. K.; Oh, T.-H.; Nathanael, A. J. Self-healing hydrogels: preparation, mechanism and advancement in biomedical applications. Polymers 2021 , 13 , 3782..

Dai, X.; Zhang, Y.; Gao, L.; Bai, T.; Wang, W.; Cui, Y.; Liu, W. A mechanically strong, highly stable, thermoplastic, and self-healable supramolecular polymer hydrogel. Adv. Mater. 2015 , 27 , 3566−3571..

Lu, Y.; He, W.; C ao, T.; Guo, H.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Q.; Shao, Z.; Cui, Y.; Zhang, X. Elastic, conductive, polymeric hydrogels and sponges. Sci. Rep. 2014 , 4 , 5792..

Schiavon, G.; Zotti, G.; Comisso, N.; Berlin, A.; Pagani, G. Ion exchange in the electrochemical switching of polypyrroles in acetonitrile by the electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance. Electrolyte incorporation by hydrogen bonding of anions to pyrrole. J. Phys. Chem. 1994 , 98 , 4861−4864..

Hao, S.; Shao, C.; Meng, L.; Cui, C.; Xu, F.; Yang, J. Tannic acid-silver dual catalysis induced rapid polymerization of conductive hydrogel sensors with excellent stretchability, self-adhesion, and strain-sensitivity properties. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020 , 12 , 56509−56521..

Pierchala, M. K.; Kadumudi, F. B.; Mehrali, M.; Zsurzsan, T.-G.; Kempen, P. J.; Serdeczny, M. P.; Spangenberg, J.; Andresen, T. L.; Dolatshahi-Pirouz, A. Soft electronic materials with combinatorial properties generated via mussel-inspired chemistry and halloysite nanotube reinforcement. ACS Nano 2021 , 15 , 9531−9549..

浏览量

115

Downloads

CSCD

文章被引用时，请邮件提醒。

Submit

工具集

关联资源

Strategic Regulation of Carbon Nanotube Dispersion with Triblock Copolymer Phase Domains: Insights from Molecular Simulations

Regulation of Mechanical Properties of Conductive Polymer Composites

Control Aggregation of P3HT in Solution for High Efficiency Doping: Ensuring Structural Order and the Distribution of Dopants

Multifunctional Waterborne Polyurethane Nanocomposite Films with Remarkable Electromagnetic Interference Shielding, Electrothermal and Solarthermal Performances

On-demand Peelable UV-curable Adhesives with Superior Bonding Strength: Rational Molecular Engineering of Cohesion-adhesion Synergy