Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Lattice Structures for Personalized Below-Knee Prosthetic Dampers

Guy O’Keefe; Naser A. Alsaleh; Mahmoud A. El-Sayed; A. Jiménez; Sabbah Ataya; Khamis Essa

doi:10.1007/s10118-025-3460-1

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Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Lattice Structures for Personalized Below-Knee Prosthetic Dampers

RESEARCH ARTICLE | Updated：2026-01-13

- Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Lattice Structures for Personalized Below-Knee Prosthetic Dampers
- Chinese Journal of Polymer Science Vol. 44, Issue 1, Pages: 173-188(2026)
- Affiliations：
  
  a.Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
  b.Industrial Engineering Department, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11432, Saudi Arabia
  c.Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Arab Academy for Science Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria 21599, Egypt
  d.Universidad de Navarra, TECNUN Escuela de Ingeniería, Manuel de Lardizábal 15, San Sebastián 20018, Spain
  e.Mechanical Engineering Department, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia
- Author bio：
  
  ajzabaleta@unav.es (A.J.)
  k.e.a.essa@bham.ac.uk (K.E.)
- Funds：
- DOI：10.1007/s10118-025-3460-1
  CLC：
- Received：25 June 2025，
  
  Accepted：18 September 2025，
  
  Online First：25 December 2025，
  
  Published：15 January 2026
- Accepted：
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O’Keefe, G.; Alsaleh, N. A.; El-Sayed, M. A.; Jiménez, A.; Ataya, S.; Essa, K. Additive manufacturing of functionally graded lattice structures for personalized below-knee prosthetic dampers. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2026, 44, 173–188

Guy O’Keefe, Naser A. Alsaleh, Mahmoud A. El-Sayed, et al. Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Lattice Structures for Personalized Below-Knee Prosthetic Dampers[J]. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science, 2026, 44(1): 173-188.
O’Keefe, G.; Alsaleh, N. A.; El-Sayed, M. A.; Jiménez, A.; Ataya, S.; Essa, K. Additive manufacturing of functionally graded lattice structures for personalized below-knee prosthetic dampers. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2026, 44, 173–188 DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3460-1.

Guy O’Keefe, Naser A. Alsaleh, Mahmoud A. El-Sayed, et al. Additive Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Lattice Structures for Personalized Below-Knee Prosthetic Dampers[J]. Chinese Journal of Polymer Science, 2026, 44(1): 173-188. DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3460-1.

摘要

This study analyzes two

types of functionally graded lattice structures

Schwarz P and BCC

for use in below-knee prosthesis dampers. A 3×3 design of experiments varied wall thickness and cell size. Optimization

via

Response Surface Methodology and finite element analysis identified optimal lattice parmeters for improved prosthetic performance.

Abstract

Functionally graded cellular structures (FGCSs) have a multitude of applications to a wide range of industries. Utilising the ever-progressing technology of additive manufacturing (AM)

FGCSs can be applied to control material grading and achieve the desired mechanical properties. The current study explores the design and optimisation of FGCSs for AM

with a focus on improving the compression and impact performance of below knee (BK) prosthetic limbs made of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). A multiscale research methodology integrating topology optimization (TO)

finite element analysis (FEA)

and design of experiments (DoE) was adopted to optimise lattice structures in terms of stiffness and lightweight properties. Two-unit cell designs were considered in the study: Schwarz P gyroid and body-centered cubic (BCC). Response surface methodology (RSM) was implemented to analyse the effect of minimum and maximum cell wall thickness

cell size

and unit cell type on the mechanical performance of TPU FGCS structures. The results indicated that a Schwarz P FGCS structure with cell size

minimum and maximum cell wall thickness of 6

0.9 and 2.8 mm

respectively

could be optimal for a compromise between performance and weight. In this optimized case

stiffness and volume fraction values of 684 N/mm and 0.64 were obtained

respectively. The study also presents a proof-of-concept design for a BK prosthetic damper

highlighting the potential of FGCSs to enhance patient comfort

reduce manufacturing costs

and enable personalised designs through 3D scanning and AM. The obtained results could be a step forward towards the incorporation of AM technologies in prosthetics

offering a pathway to lightweight

cost-effective

and functionally tailored solutions.

关键词

Keywords

references

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