Autonomous Soft Robots: Self-regulation, Self-sustained, and Recovery Strategies

Chen Zhu; Bo-Yu Liu; Li-Zhi Zhang; Lin Xu

doi:10.1007/s10118-025-3284-z

Your Location：

Home >

Browse articles >

Autonomous Soft Robots: Self-regulation, Self-sustained, and Recovery Strategies

REVIEW | Updated：2025-04-01

- Autonomous Soft Robots: Self-regulation, Self-sustained, and Recovery Strategies
- Chinese Journal of Polymer Science Vol. 43, Issue 4, Pages: 535-547(2025)
- Affiliations：
  
  School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
- Author bio：
  
  1000003037@ujs.edu.cn
- Funds：
- DOI：10.1007/s10118-025-3284-z
  CLC：
- Received：31 October 2024，
  
  Revised：12 December 2024，
  
  Accepted：2024-12-15，
  
  Published Online：27 February 2025，
  
  Published：01 April 2025
- Accepted：
Scan QR Code
Zhu, C.; Liu, B. Y.; Zhang, L. Z.; Xu, L. Autonomous soft robots: self-regulation, self-sustained, and recovery strategies. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2025, 43, 535–547

Chen Zhu, Bo-Yu Liu, Li-Zhi Zhang, et al. Autonomous Soft Robots: Self-regulation, Self-sustained, and Recovery Strategies[J]. Chinese journal of polymer science, 2025, 43(4): 535-547.
Zhu, C.; Liu, B. Y.; Zhang, L. Z.; Xu, L. Autonomous soft robots: self-regulation, self-sustained, and recovery strategies. Chinese J. Polym. Sci. 2025, 43, 535–547 DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3284-z.

Chen Zhu, Bo-Yu Liu, Li-Zhi Zhang, et al. Autonomous Soft Robots: Self-regulation, Self-sustained, and Recovery Strategies[J]. Chinese journal of polymer science, 2025, 43(4): 535-547. DOI： 10.1007/s10118-025-3284-z.

摘要

The review provides a comprehensive overview of the self-regulation strategies employed in the development of autonomous soft robots. These strategies encompass self-propulsion

self-oscillation

multi-stimulus-response mechanisms

as well as chirality and topological constraint structures.

Abstract

Autonomous

adaptable

and multimodal locomotion capabilities

which are crucial for the advanced intelligence of biological systems. A prominent focus of investigations in the domain of bionic soft robotics pertains to the emulation of autonomous motion

as observed in natural organisms. This research endeavor faces the challenge of enabling spontaneous and sustained motion in soft robots without relying on external stimuli. Considerable progress has been made in the development of autonomous bionic soft robots that utilize smart polymer materials

particularly in the realms of material design

microfabrication technology

and operational mechanisms. Nonetheless

there remains a conspicuous deficiency in the literature concerning a thorough review of this subject matter. This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of autonomous soft robots that have been developed based on self-regulation strategies that encompass self-propulsion

self-oscillation

multi-stimulus response

and topological constraint structures. Furthermore

this review engages in an in-depth discussion regarding their tunable self-sustaining motion and recovery capabilities

while also contemplating the future development of autonomous soft robotic systems and their potential applications in fields such as biomechanics.

关键词

Keywords

references

Hu, J.; Nie, Z.; Wang, M. Springtail-inspired light-driven soft jumping robots based on liquid crystal elastomers with monolithic three-leaf panel fold structure. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023 , 62 , 202218227..

Kumar, K.; Knie, C.; Bléger, D. A chaotic self-oscillating sunlight-driven polymer actuator. Nat. Commun. 2016 , 7 , 11975..

Li, A.; Li, H.; Li, Z. Programmable droplet manipulation by a magnetic-actuated robot. Sci. Adv. 2020 , 6 , 5808..

Hannard, F.; Mirkhalaf, M.; Ameri, A. Segmentations in fins enable large morphing amplitudes combined with high flexural stiffness for fish-inspired robotic materials. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 9710..

Pan, X.; Pu, W.; Liu, Y. Self-perceptional soft robotics by a dielectric elastomer. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2024 , 16 , 26797−26807..

Yang, Y.; Li, D.; Sun, Y. Muscle-inspired soft robots based on bilateral dielectric elastomer actuators. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2023 , 9 , 124..

Wang, L.; Yang, Y.; Chen, Y. Controllable and reversible tuning of material rigidity for robot applications. Mater. Today. 2018 , 21 , 563−576..

He, Q.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Y. Electrically controlled liquid crystal elastomer–based soft tubular actuator with multimodal actuation. Sci. Adv. 2019 , 5 , 5746..

Qian, N.; Bisoyi, H.; Wang, M. A visible and near-infrared light-fueled omnidirectional twist-bend crawling robot. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023 , 33 , 2214205..

Hong, S.; Um, Y.; Park, J. Agile and versatile climbing on ferromagnetic surfaces with a quadrupedal robot. Sci. Robot. 2022 , 7 , 1017..

Wu, S.; Hong, Y.; Zhao, Y. Caterpillar-inspired soft crawling robot with distributed programmable thermal actuation. Sci. Adv. 2023 , 9 , 8014..

Hwang, D.; Barron, E. J.; Haque, ABMT. Shape morphing mechanical metamaterials through reversible plasticity. Sci. Robot. 2022 , 7 , 2171..

Liu, K.; Hacker, F.; Daraio, C. Robotic surfaces with reversible, spatiotemporal control for shape morphing and object manipulation. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 5116..

Alapan, Y.; Karacakol, A.; Guzelhan, S. N. Reprogrammable shape morphing of magnetic soft machines. Sci. Adv. 2020 , 6 , 6414..

Hebner, T. S.; Kirkpatrick, B. E.; Anseth K. S. Surface-enforced alignment of reprogrammable liquid crystalline elastomers. Adv. Sci. 2022 , 9 , 2204003..

Wu, M.; Afridi, W. H.; Wu, J. Octopus-inspired underwater soft robotic gripper with crawling and swimming capabilities. Research 2024 , 7 , 0456..

Tang, C.; Du, B; Jiang. A pipeline inspection robot for navigating tubular environments in the sub-centimeter scale. Sci. Robot. 2022 , 7 , 8597..

Picardi, G.; Chellapurath, M.; Iacoponi, S. Bioinspired underwater legged robot for s eabed exploration with low environmental disturbance. Sci Robot . 2020 , 5 , eaaz1012..

Wu, M.; Xu, X.; Zhao, Q. A fully 3D-printed tortoise-inspired soft robot with terrains-adaptive and amphibious landing capabilities. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2022 , 7 , 2200536..

Tian, H.; Li, X.; Shao, J. Gecko-effect inspired soft gripper with high and switchable adhesion for rough surfaces. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2019 , 6 , 1900875..

Wu, Y.; Dong, X.; Kim, J. Wireless soft millirobots for climbing three-dimensional surfaces in confined spaces. Sci. Adv. 2022 , 8 , 3431..

Xie, Z.; Yuan, F.; Liu, J. Octopus-inspired sensorized soft arm for environmental interaction. Sci. Robot. 2023 , 8 , 7852..

Wang, J.; Zhao, T.; Fan, Y. Leveraging bioinspired structural constraints for tunable and programmable snapping dynamics in high-speed soft actuators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023 , 33 , 2209798..

Wang, D.; Tian, H.; Liu, H. Bioinspired dry adhesives for highly adaptable and stable manipulating irregular objects under vibration. Adv. Sci. 2023 , 10 , 2302512..

Shen, Y.; Jin, D.; Fu, M. Reactive wetting enabled anchoring of non-wettable iron oxide in liquid metal for miniature soft robot. Nat. Commun. 2023 , 14 , 6276..

Liu, H.; Chen, X.; Zheng, Y. Lightweight, superelastic, and hydrophobic polyimide nanofiber/MXene composite aerogel for wearable piezoresistive sensor and oil/water separation applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021 , 31 , 2008006..

Li, S.; Chen, X.; Li, X. Bioinspired robot skin with mechanically gated electron channels for sliding tactile perception. Sci. Adv. 2022 , 8 , 0720..

Park, K.; Yuk, H.; Yang, M. A biomimetic elastomeric robot skin using electrical impedance and acoustic tomography for tactile sensing. Sci. Robot. 2022 , 7 , 7187..

Li, T.; Li, G.; Liang, Y. Fast-moving soft electronic fish. Sci. Adv . 2017 , 3 ..

Sartori, P.; Yadav, R. S.; Del Barrio, J. Photochemically induced propulsion of a 4D printed liquid crystal elastomer biomimetic swimmer. Adv. Sci. 2024 , 11 , 2308561..

Li, J.; Mou, L.; Liu, Z. Oscillating light engine realized by photothermal solvent evaporation. Nat. Commun. 2022 , 13 , 5621..

Wang, L.; Zhuo, J.; Peng, J. A Stretchable soft pump driven by a heterogeneous dielectric elastomer actuator. Adv Funct Mater . 2024 , 34 , 2411160..

Peng, J.; Zhuo, J.; Dong, H. Dielectric elastomer actuators with low driving voltages and high mechanical outputs enabled by a scalable ultra-thin film multilayering process. Adv. Funct. Mater . 2024 , 34 , 2411801..

Yu, W.; Zhao, W; Zhu, X. Laser-printed all-carbon responsive material and soft robot. Adv. Mater . 2024 , 36 , 2401920..

Zhang, Z.; Long, Y.; Chen, G. Soft and lightweight fabric enables powerful and high-range pneumatic actuation. Sci. Adv. 2023 , 9 , 1203..

Yoon, Y.; Park, H.; Lee, J. Bioinspired untethered soft robot with pumpless phase change soft actuators by bidirectional thermoelectrics. Chem. Eng. J. 2023 , 451 , 138794..

Yue, W.; Xu, R.; Sui, F. Ultrafast biomimetic untethered soft actuators with bone-in-flesh constructs actuated by magnetic field. Adv. Funct. Mater . 2024 , 2401159..

Ke, X.; Zhang, S.; Chai, Z. Flexible discretely-magnetized configurable soft robots via laser-tuned selective transfer printing of anisotropic ferromagnetic cells. Mater. Today Phys. 2021 , 17 , 100313..

Lou, P.; Tian, L.; Yao, M. Photothermal-driven crawlable soft robot with bionic earthworm-likebristle structure. Adv. Intell. Syst. 2024 , 6 , 2300540..

Gelebart, A. H.; Vantomme, G.; Meijer, E. W. Mastering the photothermal effect in liquid crystal networks: a general approach for self-sustained mechanical oscillators. Adv. Mater. 2017 , 29 , 1606712..

Naclerio, N.D.; Karsai, A.; Murray Cooper, M. Controlling subterranean forces enables a fast, steerable, burrowing soft robot. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 2922..

Hebner, T. S.; Korner, K.; Bowman, C. N. Leaping liquid crystal elastomers. Sci. Adv. 2023 , 9 , 1320..

Oh, M. H.; Kim, Y. H.; Lee, S. M. Lifetime-configurable soft robots via photodegradable silicone elastomer composites. Sci. Adv . 2023 , 9 , eadh9962..

Wei, K.; Tang, C.; Yang, R. 3D-printed microrobots for biomedical applications. Biomater. Sci. 2024 , 12 , 4301−4334..

Abdelaziz, M. E. M. K.; Zhao, J.; Gil, Rosa. B. Fiberbots: robotic fibers for high-precision minimally invasive surgery. Sci. Adv. 2024 , 10 , 1984..

Roh, Y.; Kim, M.; Won, S. M. Vital signal sensing and manipulation of a microscale organ with a multifunctional soft gripper. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 6774..

Ferrer, E. C.; Hardjono, T.; Pentland, A. Secure and secret cooperation in robot swarms. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 1538..

Kim, D. S.; Lee, Y. J.; Kim, Y. B. Autonomous, untethered gait-like synchronization of lobed loops made from liquid crystal elastomer fibers via spontaneous snap-through. Sci. Adv. 2023 , 9 , 5107..

Ren, L.; He, Y.; Wang, B. 4D printed self-sustained soft crawling machines fueled by constant thermal field. Adv. Funct. Mater . 2024 , 34 , 2400161..

Gao, Y.; Tang, W.; Zou, J. Printing untethered self-reconfigurable, self-amputating soft robots from recyclable self-healing fibers. Adv Sci. 2025 , 12 , 2410167..

Murase, Y.; Hidaka, M.; Yoshida R. Self-driven gel conveyer: Au tonomous transportation by peristaltic motion of self-oscillating gel. Sensor. Actuat. B-Chem. 2010 , 149 , 272−283..

Kim, S.; Laschi, C.; Trimmer, B. Soft robotics: a bioinspired evolution in robotics. Trends Biotechnol. 2013 , 31 , 287−294..

Sun, Y.; Liu, S.; Li, C. Liquid crystalline elastomer self-oscillating fiber actuators fabricated from soft tubular molds. Soft Matter. 2024 , 20 , 4246−4256..

Zhao, Y.; Xuan, C.; Qian, X. Soft phototactic swimmer based on self-sustained hydrogel oscillator. Sci. Robot. 2019 , 4 , 7112..

Yang, L.; Chang, L.; Hu, Y. An autonomous soft actuator with light-driven self-sustained wavelike oscillation for phototactic self-locomotion and power generation. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020 , 30 , 1908842..

Hu, Y.; Ji, Q.; Huang, M. Light-driven self-oscillating actuators with phototactic locomotion based on black phosphorus heterostructure. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2021 , 60 , 20511−20517..

Lan, R.; Sun, J.; Shen, C. Near-infrared photodriven self-sustained oscillation of liquid-crystalline network film with predesignated polydopamine coating. Adv. Mater. 2020 , 32 , 1906319..

Xu, L.; Xu, Y.; Li, L. MXene-based soft actuators with phototropic self-sustained oscillation for versatile applications in micro robotics. Adv. Funct. Mater . 2024 , 35 , 2414338..

Zhao, Y.; Li, Q.; Liu, Z. Sunlight-powered self-excited oscillators for sustainable autonomous soft robotics. Sci. Robot. 2023 , 8 , 4753..

He, Q.; Wang, Z.; Wang, Y. Electrospun liquid crystal elastomer microfiber actuator. Sci. Robot. 2021 , 6 , 9704..

Gelebart, A.H.; Jan, Mulder D.; Varga, M. Making waves in a photoactive polymer film. Nature 2017 , 546 , 632−636..

Liu, J.; Xu, L.; Ji, Q. A MXene-based light-driven actuator and motor with self-sustained oscillatio n for versatile applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024 , 34 , 2310955..

Zhao, Y.;Liu, Z.; Shi, P. Antagonistic-contracting high-power photo-oscillators for multifunctional actuations. Nat. Mater . 2024 , 24 , 116−124..

Zhu, C.; Zhang, L.; Wang, B.; Tao, R. Light-driven liquid crystal elastomer actuators based on surface plasmon resonance for soft robots. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2024 , 16 , 69858−69869..

Chen, G.; Ma, B.; Chen, Y. Soft robots with plant-inspired gravitropism based on fluidic liquid metal. Adv. Sci. 2024 , 11 , 2306129..

Wang, X. Q.; Tan, C. F.; Chan, K. In-built thermo-mechanical cooperative feedback mechanism for self-propelled multimodal locomotion and electricity generation. Nat. Commun. 2018 , 9 , 3438..

Zheng, R.; Ma, L.; Feng, W. Autonomous self-sustained liquid crystal actuators enabling active photonic applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023 , 33 , 2301142..

Wang, M.; Cheng, Z. W.; Zuo, B. Liquid crystal elastomer electric locomotives. ACS Macro Lett. 2020 , 9 , 860−865..

Chang, L.; Wang, D.; Huang, Z. A versatile ionomer-based soft actuator with multi-stimulus responses, self-sustainable locomotion, and photoelectric conversion. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022 , 33 , 2212341..

Xu, L.; Zhu, C.; Lamont, S. Programming motion into materials using electricity-driven liquid crystal elastomer actuators. Soft Robot. 2024 , 11 , 64−472..

Fu, L.; Zhao, W.; Ma, J. A humidity-powered soft robot with fast rolling locomotion. Research 2022 , 2022 , 9832901..

Du, N.; Fan, Y.; Nan, K. Stimuli-responsive hydrogel actuators for skin therapeutics and beyond. Soft Sci. 2024 , 4 , 35..

Cheng, Y.; Huang, C.; Wei, J. Bilayer hydrogel mixed composites that respond to multiple stimuli for environmental sensing and underwater actuation. J. Mater. Chem. B 2018 , 6 , 8170−8179..

Hua, M.; Kim, C.; Du, Y. Swaying gel: chemo-mechanical self-oscillation based on dynamic buckling. Matter 2021 , 4 , 1029−1041..

Zhou, X.; Chen, G.; Jin, B. Multimodal autonomous locomotion of liquid crystal elastomer soft robot. Adv. Sci. 2024 , 11 , 2402358..

Zhao, Y.; Chi, Y.; Hong, Y. Twisting for soft intelligent autonomous robot in unstructured environments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2022 , 119 , 2200265119..

Zhai, F.; Feng, Y.; Li, Z. 4D-printed untethered self-propelling soft robot with tactile perception: rolling, racing, and exploring. Matter 2021 , 4 , 3313−3326..

Kim, Y. B.; Yang, S.; Kim, D. S. Sidewinder-inspired self-adjusting, lateral-rolling soft robots for autonomous terrain exploration. Adv. Sci. 2024 , 11 , 2308350..

Hu, Z.; Li , Y.; Lv, J. Phototunable self-oscillating system driven by a self-winding fiber actuator. Nat. Commun. 2021 , 12 , 3211..

Zhao, Y.; Hong, Y.; Qi, F. Self-sustained snapping drives autonomous dancing and motion in free-standing wavy rings. Adv. Mater. 2022 , 35 , 2207372..

Zhu, Q. L.; Liu, W.; Khoruzhenko, O. Animating hydrogel knotbots with topology-invoked self-regulation. Nat. Commun. 2024 , 15 , 300..

Qi, F.; Li, Y.; Hong Y. Defected twisted ring topology for autonomous periodic flip–spin–orbit soft robot. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2024 , 121 , 2312680121..

Ren, L.; Li, B.; He, Y. Programming shape-morphing behavior of liquid crystal elastomers via parameter-encoded 4D printing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020 , 12 , 15562−15572..

Nie, Z.; Wang, M.; Huang, S. Multimodal self-sustainable autonomous Locomotions of light-driven Seifert ribbon actuators based on liquid crystal elastomers. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023 , 62 , 20 2304081..

Shin, B.; Ha, J.; Lee, M. Hygrobot: a self-locomotive ratcheted actuator powered by environmental humidity. Sci. Robot. 2018 , 3 , 2629..

Cecchini, L.; Mariani, S.; Ronzan, M. 4D printing of humidity-driven seed inspired soft robots. Adv. Sci . 2023 , 10 , 2205146..

Rothemund, P.; Ainla, A.; Belding, L. A soft, bistable valve for autonomous control of soft actuators. Sci. Robot. 2018 , 3 , eaar7986..

Gao, Y.; Jian, J.; Jian, Z. Effect of Al content on thermal stability, shape memory effect and mechanical properties of Cu-Al-Fe shape memory alloys. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim . 2024 , 149 , 7245−7253..

Huang, J.; Jiang, Y.; Chen, Q. Bioinspired thermadapt shape-memory polymer with light-induced reversible fluorescence for rewritable 2D/3D-encoding information carriers. Nat. Commun. 2023 , 14 , 7131..

Zhao, F.; Li, Y.; Gao, H. Design and characterization of deformable superstructures based on amine-acrylate liquid crystal elastomers. Adv. Sci. 2023 , 10 , 2303594..

Gorshkova, N.; Brovko, O.; Palamarchuk, I. Preparation of bioactive aerogel material based on sodium alginate and chitosan for controlled release of levomycetin. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2021 , 32 , 3474−3482..

Heo, Y. H.; Lee, S. H.; Lee, I. K. Enhanced flexible vibrotactile actuator based on dielectric elastomer with propylene carbonate. Intell. Serv. Robot. 2024 , 17 , 67−74..

Liu, Y.; Yao, J.; Liu, Y. D. Bending, electroadhesion and sensing performances of single compliant electrode dielectric elastomer actuator based on SEBS gel. Smart Mater. Struct. 2024 , 33 , 065020..

Dai, T.; Liu, Y.; Rong, D. Bioinspired dynamic matrix based on developable structure of MXene-cellulose nanofibers (CNF) soft actuators. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024 , 34 , 2400459..

Liu W.; Duo Y.; Liu J. Touc hless interactive teaching of soft robots through flexible bimodal sensory interfaces. Nat. Commun. 2022 , 13 , 5030..

Abbasi, S. A.; Ahmed, A.; Noh, S. Autonomous 3D positional control of a magnetic microrobot using reinforcement learning. Nat. Mach. Intell. 2024 , 6 , 92−105..

Jiang, T.; Gai, S.; Yin, Y. A light/thermal cascaded-driven equipment for machine recognition inspired by water lilies using as multifunctional soft actuator. Chem. Eng. J. 2024 , 495 , 153348..

Liu, J.; Liang, J.; Zhao, S. Design of a virtual multi-interaction operation system for hand-eye coordination of grape harvesting robots. Agronomy-Basel. 2023 , 13 , 829..

Lu, E.; Ma, Z.; Li, Y. Adaptive backstepping control of tracked robot running trajectory based on real-time slip parameter estimation. Int. J. Agricult. Biol. Eng. 2020 , 13 , 178−187..

Chen, K.; Li, T.; Yan, T. A Soft Gripper Design for Apple Harvesting with Force Feedback and Fruit Slip Detection. Agriculture. 2022 , 12 , 1802..

Views

Downloads

CSCD

Alert me when the article has been cited

Submit

Tools

Publicity Resources

Self-healing Polymeric Hydrogels: Toward Multifunctional Soft Smart Materials

Related Author

Xiao-Ling Zuo

Shao-Fan Wang

Xiao-Xia Le

Wei Lu

Tao Chen

Related Institution

College of Materials Science and Engineering, Guizhou Minzu University

Key Laboratory of Bio-Based Polymeric Materials Technology and Application of Zhejiang Province, Ningbo Institute of Material Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences

School of Chemical Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences

⁰